necessary improvements and modernization. In-
rently the only means for servicing these outlying
sufficient capital has allowed 40% of ship and
regions, which are crucial for resource develop-
cargo-handling equipment in all ports to become
ment and the hard currency it can generate in the
useless, and approximately one third of all quay
form of exports. Though Peters' analysis of cur-
walls are verging on collapse. Peters (1993) reports
rent conditions is certainly unsettling, it admits to
that about 85% of all profits would be necessary to
disregard of international shipping, which could
just maintain current equipment in operating con-
conceivably improve the regional outlook. Still, he
dition.
presents a series of recommendations that appear
Even though all ports of the Arctic and Pacific
promising for the future.
Rim regions came under the control of Russia, sev-
eral key, high-volume ports and cargo carriers in
River shipping
the Baltic and Black Sea regions were lost to other
In the Siberian North, river shipping is inextri-
nations of the CIS. This reapportionment changed
cably dependent on ocean transport. North (1991)
the national statistics dramatically, so that in 1992
provided the following general information on
a large segment of Russian sea trade was chan-
Russia's northern rivers. As important as it is for
neled through foreign ports (37%) and moved by
the regional economy, river navigation is limited
foreign vessels (46%). Foreign handlers now re-
each year by ice and low water. For example, many
quire payment for services in hard currency, re-
ports are inaccessible for most of the year due to
sulting in a serious drain of nearly US billion
the presence of ice, and spring ice breakup causes
equivalent. To stem this outflow, the Russian gov-
a two- to four-week idle period for most river ports.
ernment responded quickly by redirecting freight
In general, rivers west of the Taymyr Peninsula
shipment as much as possible through Federation
are ice-free for an average of 120 days, and east of
ports and onto Russian ships. Approximately 50%
the peninsula the average is around 80 days. Varia-
of foreign trade is still moved on foreign vessels,
tions of 20 days about these means are typical.
which generally provide more efficient service at
Low water becomes problematic following spring
lower cost than domestic ships.
runoff. Precipitation is sparse during the summer
Privatization and profit-motivated management
months so that watersheds are not replenished at
are not familiar concepts in Russia, and the drastic
a rate comparable to drainage. Rivers, particularly
changeover is sure to cause many immediate prob-
east of the Yenisey, are affected by a shallower line
lems. Industry analysts expect a period of upheaval
of permafrost that prevents the infiltration of snow-
and adjustment resulting in near-term lower port
melt and rainfall. Consequently runoff is more
productivity and, in some cases, the closing of cer-
rapid and water level fluctuations are more ex-
tain facilities. Viktor Miskov, president of FESCO,
treme. Small rivers are even more greatly affected.
was recently quoted as saying "This type of
For the shallower and more upstream reaches,
privatization is totally wrong ... they broke up the
which comprise a large percentage of Siberia's to-
chain ... Before taking this step, they should have
tal river mileage, the navigation season can be 30
taken into account the psychology of the people,
days or less, assuming that the minimum depth
traditions, even geography--the whole system we
needed is 0.6 m. Sporadic years of unusual dry-
used to live in. Maybe it could be done in a few
ness can limit navigation here to even a 10-day
years time, but not now, not straight away."
season. This inherently short season for river ves-
(Berenyl et al. 1994)
sel movement coupled with its unpredictability
The government's policy to dissolve central con-
must be considered when projecting when, how
trol of port operations, eliminating state subsidies
much, and what types of cargoes can be moved by
and allowing market forces to prevail, does not
water transport.
bode well for the industry, considering the current
The Yenisey and Ob' are navigable by ocean-
upheaval. Peters (1993) is especially concerned
going vessels for approximately the same distance
about the plan's viability for northern ports that
(to Igarka on the Yenisey), but the majority of the
have never been positioned to be commercially
Ob's distance is a gulf. The gulf of Ob' is shallow,
profitable. He points to high cost factors such as
and transshipment to river craft takes place at road-
ice navigation, the short sailing season, sparse
steads using floating cranes. Besides the inconve-
population, small cargo volume, and heavy non-
nience, the work is often interrupted by weather
transport-related social responsibilities as reasons
when conditions become too rough for smaller
for unprofitable shipping. Yet the importance of
river craft. The Lena River delta is shallow, so that
shipping in these areas is unquestioned. It is cur-
cargo has to be transshipped at nearby Tiksi, and
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