actions among multiple aquifers. Site-specific
Cederstrom, D.J. (1963) Ground water resources
conditions are extremely complex because of the
of the Fairbanks area, Alaska. U.S. Geological Sur-
diverse relationships among deeply thawed and
vey Water-Supply Paper, 1590.
unfrozen zones, and the subpermafrost aquifer.
Chapman, H.T., and A.E. Robinson (1962) A ther-
Deeply frozen materials interrupt the continuity
mal flowmeter for measuring velocity of flow in a
of the subpermafrost aquifer, while a thin active
well. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
layer interrupts the continuity of suprapermafrost
1544-E.
aquifers. Fracture zones in bedrock are possible
Ecology and Environment (1994) Remedial inves-
sources of ground water entering the subperma-
tigations report, Operable Unit 4, Fort Wainwright,
frost aquifer south of Birch Hill. With sufficient
Alaska, Volumes 1 and 2; November. Prepared for
flux, thaw zones that penetrate from the bedrock
U.S. Army Engineer District, Alaska, and U.S.
through the permafrost into the suprapermafrost
Army Alaska, Ft. Richardson, Alaska.
aquifer can be created. Ground water flow rates
Ferrians, O.J., Jr. (1965) Permafrost map of Alaska.
and directions are affected seasonally by the com-
U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Geologi-
petitive interaction of aquifers in the bedrock of
cal Investigations Map I-445.
Birch Hill and those in the alluvial deposits of the
Ferrians, O.J., Jr., and G.D. Hobson (1973) Map-
Chena and Tanana basins, but we do not have
ping and predicting permafrost in North America.
enough data to define fully this interaction.
A review, 19631973. In Permafrost: The North
Measurements with ground water flow sensors
American Contribution to the 2nd International Con-
below permafrost for the period of August 1995
ference on Permafrost, Yakutsk, 1328 July. Washing-
through July 1997 indicate that the prevailing flow
ton, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, p. 479
direction is northwest by westerly. In unfrozen
498.
materials laterally bounded by permafrost, flow
Hamilton, T.D. (1994) Late Cenozoic glaciation of
directions vary with depth, as well as from site to
Alaska. In The Geology of Alaska (G. Plafker and
site. Flow in suprapermafrost aquifers is extremely
H.C. Berg, Ed.), Geological Society of America, p.
variable in direction seasonally as well as from
813844.
location to location.
Hess, A.E. (1982) A heat-pulse flowmeter for mea-
Potential pathways through which contami-
suring low velocities in boreholes. U.S. Geologi-
nants might migrate from the landfill site include
cal Survey Open-File Report, 82-699.
unfrozen channel sediments that existed before
Hopkins, D.M., T.N.V. Karlstrom, and others
operations began and the thaw bulb that was cre-
(1955) Permafrost and ground water in Alaska.
ated by those operations. If leachate is migrating
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 264-F.
through the landfill, it could enter the subperma-
King, P.B. (1969) Tectonic map of North America
frost aquifer through these unfrozen zones. Run-
(1:5,000,000). U.S. Geological Survey Map.
off from the landfill surface may also flow into
Lawson, D.E. (1986) Response of permafrost ter-
near-surface aquifers abutting the site, including
rain to disturbance: A synthesis of observations
those beneath trails, roads, and drainage ditches.
from northern Alaska. Arctic and Alpine Research,
Both flow paths could ultimately move soluble
18: 117.
contaminants into the subregional aquifer west
Lawson, D.E., J.C. Strasser, and J.M. Davi (1994)
or southwest of the site, depending upon the local
Geological and geophysical investigations of the
gradient.
hydrogeology of Operable Unit 3. Interim Draft
Report prepared for the U.S. Army 6th ID and
U.S. Army Engineer District, Alaska, by the USA
LITERATURE CITED
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Arcone, A.J. Delaney, and C.R. Williams (1996)
Geological and geophysical investigations of the
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hydrogeology of Fort Wainwright, Alaska. Part 1.
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Canol Road Area. USA Cold Regions Research
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28
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