HISTORICAL REVIEW

significant benefit to business partners. The po-

Early in the twentieth century, the Russian gov-

tential exists for foreign investment in the devel-

ernment commissioned two small icebreakers,

opment of Russian shipping and resource extrac-

Taymyr and Vaygach, to perform an extensive

tion. For example, western oil companies are

hydrographic survey along the entire northern

negotiating with the Russians to supply foreign

coast. They worked each summer season from 1910

development expertise and investment dollars in

to 1915 and succeeded in the first, although pro-

the Yamal and Taymyr regions for a share of the

tracted, east-to-west transit of the passage. Soon,

raw oil and gas products shipped via the NSR. It is

however, international shipping interest shifted

conceivable that other business arrangements can

away from the Russian Arctic to more accessible

be formed to boost working capital for regional

routes, not only because of the physical environ-

development of the necessary port facilities and

ment, but due to legal accessibility as well.

service infrastructure along the route.

Claims of sovereignty over the route extend at

least as far back as 1704 when an edict of Peter the

Great established a Russian monopoly over com-

mercial fishing and hunting in the western Arctic

HISTORICAL REVIEW

seas. Similar imperial declarations were issued in

1753, 1799, and 1821. Russian legal claims were

Early history

Maritime nations throughout history have

confirmed by conventions with the United States

sought shipping advantages in distance and time

(1824) and Great Britain (1825). These and repeated

over their rivals. This rivalry spurred early explo-

Soviet claims following the October Revolution of

ration of new trade routes. The terms "Northwest

1917 have resulted in nearly universal observance

Passage" and "Northeast Passage" came into popu-

of Soviet dominion over the Northern Sea Route

lar usage more than 400 years ago to refer to de-

(Kolodkin and Volosov 1990; see also Franckx 1988,

sired corridors of travel from Europe to the East

Butler 1991).

Indies via northern waters. The Northwest Pas-

Isolated by a protectionist policy, the Soviets

sage was a proposed route from Europe westerly

invested heavily in a marine infrastructure that

across the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, by way of

allowed them to settle and develop their northern

the Canadian archipelago. Alternatively, the North-

coastline and reap the abundant natural resources

east Passage accessed the Pacific Ocean from Eu-

of their frontier. The USSR sought to become inde-

rope by traveling northerly along Scandinavia to

pendent of other nations for raw materials. The

the Arctic Basin and then eastward along Asia's

huge nickel deposits at Noril'sk in the Yenisey

northern coastline.

River basin and the tin deposits at Deputatskiy

In time, the idea of a northern sea passage to

and Iul'tin were discovered during this period,

the Orient fell out of favor as the environmental

and gold was discovered in the far northeast, dia-

challenges of the Arctic became more apparent

monds in the Lena River basin, and apatite near

from successive exploratory voyages. However, the

Murmansk.

prospect of trade along the northern Asian coast-

line itself continued to inspire exploration in the

Recent history

region. The land and sea journeys of early

Granberg (1992) breaks down the modern era

expeditioners such as Vitus Bering, Willem Barents,

of Soviet development of the Northern Sea Route

Baron F.P. Wrangel, and many others were signifi-

into four periods:

cant, and their legacy is noted by prominent geo-

graphical place names that honor their achieve-

Exploration and settlement (19171932);

ments.

Organization of regular navigation and

Although attempts to pioneer the route began

development of fleet and ports (1932 to

in the 16th century, it wasn't until 1879 that a west-

early 1950s);

to-east transit was finally completed, by a Swede,

Development completed and regular sea-

Baron Nils Adolf Erik Nordenskild, after a two-

sonal traffic established (early 1950s to late

year voyage. He was forced to winter-over in the

1970s);

ice at Kolyuchino, just 135 nm short of the Bering

Efforts to establish year-round shipping

Strait, but Armstrong (1992a) states that he most

(late 1970s to present).

certainly could have completed the route in a single

season had he not undertaken an ambitious pro-

Highlights of these four periods of the modern era

gram of scientific observations along the way.

are presented below.