bottom of shallow ponds where waterfowl feed.
with high populations of bloodworms (Chironomus
Tissues from waterfowl observed to die or found
salinarius), while dabbling ducks and swans use
deeper permanent ponds with abundant seeds
dead in the salt marsh were collected, and we
and other invertebrates. The history of these ponds
found white phosphorus in the gizzards of all 19
appears closely tied to process adjustments follow-
carcasses collected in Eagle River Flats. Adult mal-
ing earthquakes, controlling cycles in tidal creek
lards dosed in the laboratory with white phospho-
development, and sedimentation. This baseline
rus showed identical behavioral symptoms to
pond information should help direct future restor-
those of wild ducks observed to become sick and
ation of ponds following dredging, draining, or
die in Eagle River Flats. All evidence indicates that
covering with a bottom barrier.
white phosphorus, as a particulate in the sedi-
ments, is responsible for the death of waterfowl in
Eagle River Flats. Since the bottom sediments of
Racine, C.H., M.E. Walsh, C.M. Collins, L. Reitsma,
and B. Steele (1993) Sampling and site assessment
the shallow salt marsh ponds are anaerobic, the
of white phosphorus sediment contamination in
white phosphorus particles will persist in the sed-
ponds of an Alaskan salt marsh. In Proceedings,
iments indefinitely and remain a threat to water-
SETAC 14th Annual Meeting, 1418 November, Hous-
fowl.
ton, Texas, p. 117.
The 865-ha Eagle River Flats is an estuarine salt
Racine, C.H., M.E. Walsh, C.M. Collins, and S.
marsh on Cook Inlet near Anchorage where artil-
Taylor (1992) White phosphorus poisoning of
lery training since the 1940's has resulted in the
waterfowl in a wetland impact area. In Proceedings,
contamination of shallow pond sediments with the
Smoke/Obscurants Symposium XVI, 1416 April,
smoke-producing munition, white phosphorus
Laurel, Maryland, p. 787.
(P4). Ingestion of small white phosphorus particles
White phosphorus is the cause of death of thou-
by migrating waterfowl, feeding in the pond bot-
sands of waterfowl each year at Eagle River Flats
tom sediments, has resulted in an annual mortality
(ERF), the impact area for artillery training at Ft.
of over 1000 waterfowl. There are literally hun-
Richardson, Alaska. We have isolated white phos-
dreds of ponds of various sizes and shapes and the
phorus particles from ERF sediments with lengths
determination or site assessment of which ponds
(maximum cross-sectional diameters) ranging
are contaminated presented a large and difficult
from 0.26 to 2.9 mm. Sediment-sieving waterfowl
sampling problem. To facilitate this work, we devel-
such as dabbling ducks and swans ingest these
oped an integrated plan linking sediment sam-
particles that are in the size range of food items,
pling of ponds with waterfowl and predator obser-
such as seeds and invertebrates. Since a lethal dose
vations, carcass counts and remote sensing-GIS
of white phosphorus is on the order of 1 mg/kg of
mapping techniques. The success of using these var-
body weight, the ingestion of a single particle can
ious techniques and "indicators" to determine
be fatal to a small duck. These white phosphorus
which ponds are contaminated is described.
particles were deposited from smoke rounds fired
into this wetland. Burning white phosphorus
extinguishes when immersed in water, leaving a
Racine, C.H., M.E. Walsh, C.M. Collins, B.D. Roe-
significant amount of unreacted material in the
buck, and W. Gossweiler (1991) Waterfowl mor-
burn residue. Once deposited, the anaerobic sedi-
tality in Eagle River Flats impact area, Anchorage,
ments prevent oxidation, thereby preserving the
Alaska. In Proceedings, 15th Annual Army Envi-
white phosphorus indefinitely.
ronmental R&D Symposium, June, Williamsburg, Vir-
ginia, p. 563575.
The deaths of hundreds of migrating dabbling
Racine, C.H., M.E. Walsh, B.D. Roebuck, and
ducks and 1050 swans have been documented
C.M. Collins (1991) Elemental phosphorus as the
yearly for the last 10 years in Eagle River Flats
cause of waterfowl mortality in a salt marsh at Ft.
(ERF), an estuarine salt marsh on Ft. Richardson,
Richardson, Alaska. In Proceedings, 83rd Annual
Alaska. This marsh has been used for the past 40
Meeting, American Society of Agronomy, 27 October
1 November, Denver, Colorado, p. A3.
years as an artillery impact range by the U.S. Army.
The yearly death of 10002000 migrating dab-
During May and August 1990, CRREL collected
bling ducks (Anas sp.) and 1050 swans (Cygnus
over 250 sediment and water samples and anal-
yzed them for munitions residues. We found 2,4-
sp.) has been documented for the last 10 years in
DNT in a limited area of ERF not used by water-
Eagle River Flats, an estuarine salt marsh near
fowl and white phosphorus in sediments from the
Anchorage, Alaska. This marsh has been used
29
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